ANIMALS

The animals are living objects  with heterotrophy , rapid responsiveness ,very high level of adaptability  and a compact body  that grows only  upto a certain age   and lacks  chlorophyll  and cellulose .They  have definite  shapes and different level of body organization , in habit different parts of the  environment  and form association  with other living organisms.                 Shapes of body  ;Most  animals have definite shape  of their body and each animal is usually  recognised by the shape of its body .The shape of the body is  expressed  in term of symmetry, depending  on which the body shape  is of the following two types ;                                                      [1] Symmetrical .When  parts of the body are  arranged in such a pattern  that it can cut  into two equal halves  through one or more planes   the body is said to be   symmetrical [regular in shape] .                                           [2] Asymmetrical .If  the body parts are arranged  in such a way that the body can not  be cut into two equal halves  through  any plane , the body is said to be asymmetrical[irregular in shape] .Amoeba  and few other animals  have asymmetrical body .                                                                  The  symmetry of  the body  may be spherical  ,bilateral or radial. A ball- shaped body  has spherical  symmetry .It can be cut into two equal halves along the longitudinal  axis ,it is said to be  bilaterally symmetrical .The body of man  bilaterally symmetrical .The earthworm  and frog also show  similar  symmetry .Some animals  have abody  in which  body part radiate  out from the centre  ,it is said to be radially symmetrical .The bodty of star fish is radially symmetrical  and so is the body  of Aurelia  and hydra [both coelenterates].                                                                                                                                                                   The symmetry of the body  is associated with the polarity  and surfaces  of the body .The  distinction of  anterior and posterior  ends in the body  is called polarity  of the body .The  end of the body  that remain  toward the direction  of the movement  is called anterior end  and the end opposite  to this  end   is said to be the posterior end  of the body .The anterior end  is  characterised by the  presence of mouth  and the posterior   end by the  presence  of cloacal  aperture  or anus .Besides , the anterior  and posterior end ,two more ends ,the proximal and distal  ends are also referred  in context of the  description of the body  or an organ .The proximal end  is the end near the point  under reference ,whereas the distal end  is away from the point under reference .The  terms  proximal  and distal  are also  used as prefix to parts .                              Three surfaces  are distinguishable in the body  which remains towards  sky or away from the body  of most animals ;these include dorsal , ventral and lateral .The  surface of the body  which remains  towards sky or  away from the substratum  during the movement is called  dorsal surface  lies between the  dorsal ventral  surfaces on  the sides .It is  represented  by  right and left sides  of the body.In man the head end  is anterior end  and anal end  the posterior end .The  back of the human body  is dorsal surface , whereas the dorsal chest  is the ventral surface .                                                                                                                                                                                     

ZOOLOGY

Zoology is a vast science   which deals with animals hence ,it is usually quoted with  as animal science . It deals  with all those aspects  which are related to  maintainence  and continuity  of the animal  life .These  aspects  include  the body organisation ,functions of body parts , in heritage  of characters ,evolution ,responses and behavior , relationship with  environment, etc.                                                                                                       Branches of Zoology  For sake  of convenience ,Zoology  , a vast science  , has  been divided  into different branches  which include ;                                                                                                                                                    [1] Morphology .It deals with gross structure and shape of different animals .It has been divided  into Anatomy, dealing  with the study of internal structures  with unaided eyes , and Histology , the  study of the internal organs  and tissues with the  help  of microscope .                                                                                    [2] Cytology .It deals  with the  cytoplasm  and structural detail of cells.                                                             [3] Taxonomy .It  is the  study  of principles  and laws relating  to classification  of animals  and their nomenclature.                                                                                              [4] Evolution . It deals  with the study of origin of life , formation of different forms  from the primordial  life and relation ship between   existing [extent] and extinct animals.                                                                             [5] Paleontology . It deals  with the  remains of animals  of bygone  ages,i.e., fossils .                                     [6] Zoogeography.It deals with the study of the  distribution of animals in space and rocks of the earth .              [7] Genetics .It deals with the study of the  distribution of animals  in space and rocks of the earth  from generation to generation .                                                                                                                                    [8] Zooecology . It deals  with the study  of animals  association with other organism and abiotic  environment , or deals with the relationship  between animals and their surroundings .                                         [9] Eugenics . It deals with the method of improvement of the human race , involving already established  principles of genetics .                                                                                                                                      [10] Ethology . It deals  with the study of improvement  of the human race, improving  immediate environment  that surrounds man  .[12]  Embroylogy .It deals  with the study of improvement of  human race by improving immediate environment that surrounds man  .                                                                                 [13] Endocrinology .It deals  with  embroys and their development .The  developmental biology  is synonimous  with the embroylogy .                                                                                                                      [14] Physiology .It deals  with the study of  function of the body parts.                                                           [15] Osteology.It is the study of the  bones of different animals .                                                                        [16] Enzymology.It deals  with the study of the nature , strucutures and the function of enzymes  in the body of animals .                                                                                                                                   

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO CATEGORIES LIVING OBJECTS [ANIMALS vsPLANTS]

Most living object can be assigned  to one of the  two great  categories  of plants  and animals  but some microscopically  small living objects  have characteristics of both .Plants and animals have common ,to a greater or lesser extent  almost all character of the living  objects  but there  are some fundamental differences  between them .These  include the following ;                                                                                                                         [1] Method of feeding ; Animals take food in   that is chemically complex [i.e., composed of macro molecules ]. It consists  either of plant  products  or of animals  that feed  on plants .Thus , they are hetrotrophs . The complex food is reduced  to simpler  material by the process  of digestion , and in this form it  is taken  up by the body .On the   contrary , plants  take in  very simple  substances as food which  consists of simple  molecules ,namelyCO2, from the air ,and water  and mineral from the soil .In their leaves ,they combine CO2,and water to form a simple sugar , the glucose using energy of the sun  to affect the change ,a process called photosynthesis .From the glucose so formed and mineral salts  absorbed from the soil  ,green plants  make any  of the substances  needed for their existence .Obviosly plants are  autotrophs  and they  do not  depend on any source  for their  food .                                                                                                        [2] Chlorophyll .The green color  of the plants is due to the presence of compound  called chlorophyll ,which is not present in animals .The chlorophyll is important   in absorption of the  solar energy , and its presence  in animals  .The chlorophyll  is important  in absorption  of the solar energy, and its presence  indicates fundamental  difference between  nourishing process of plant and animals  .However ,fungi and most bacteria  lack chlorophyll  and therefore , must obtain both  their  nourishment and their energy  from the food they consume , much as animals do .[3] Cellulose.A considerable proportion of the plant body   is composed of a complex  polysaccharide  called cellulse .It is not present in animals .                                                           [4] Movement .Most of the  animalos  can move their whole body ,and are able to change place .On the contrary ,most plants  cannot move their whole body , for example ,opening and closing of    petals   of certain flowers  ,and movement   of parts due to the growth .However ,microscopic plants move as  freely as microscopic animals .[5] Growth .The animals  grow  only upto a certain  age  after which they donot grow till  death.Their body  body parts  proportionately  in all directions .On the  contrary ,plants grow  through out life and their growth is   terminal ,i.e.,  they grow more along their length  than width .                                                [6] Organisation of body .In animals , parts are  mostly  placed in the body  , whereas  in plants , the parts are  mostly placed  on the surface of the body .                                                                                             [7] Receptors . The receptors are unique  to animals ; they recieve stimuli  and keep animals  informed about the environmental  changes , but  in contrast with the animals ,the  plants lack receptors .                              [8]  Excretion . Animals  remove out  toxic wastes of their body  but this doesnot takes place  plants .                                                                                                          

LIFE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

                       Life  ; Living organisms  have life  and that  is why  they are distinct from non-living objects .But a very pertinent  question arises as what is life ? The other  question may be asked  such as what is  shape of life  and  how has it come into existence ?  Honestly, no categorical answer  is available  to these questions .However , some speculations or  hypothesis  are available  in this  context .Some  believe that life is  a power state of the body , others have taken life as  steady and dynamic  state of the living matter ,i.e.,  the protoplasm  and certain  others have considered  it to be the total  sum of chemical reactions taking  place in the body of the living  organism.But many others  have explained the life as the body's  ability   to utilize and convert  energy .These definations  suggest that  the life is an abstract phenomenon.                                                                                   Characteristics of Living Objects                                                                                       It  is certainly difficult to define life but  every object possessing life  shows certain activities  which are attributes  of life .These are common to all living objects or living organisms  and therefore are refered as  to  characteristics of life or  life forms .On the basis of these  characteristics , the living objects  can be easilly  distinguished  from the non-living  ones . These include the following; [1] living objects have definite shape and size  and therefore , every object has  a  distinct appearence  and that is why  one living objects or organism can be ditinguished easiy from another .                                                                                                              [2] Living object are highly  ordered  and possess protoplasm.Body of all living objects  is  composed of living matter  called protoplasm ,whose chemical composition  includes large complex  such as proteins ,carbohydrates, fat, water  and nucleic acid .Such combination of   chemical  is not found  in non-living objects.                                                                                                                                                             [3] Living  objects show cellularity .In every  living object the living matter is  divided into  unit structures  called cell .Body  of some living objects  is made of  only one cell ,whereas  the body of other living objects  is made  of only one cell , whereas  the body  of other  living  object is formed by  more than one cell .On the contrary , the body of  non-living objects  doesnot show cellular  organization .                                                  [4] Livng objects move .Living  objects are able to move their body  part of whole body .Most animals  are able to  move their  whole body  and move from one place to another .The  movement involving change of place  ,is called locomtion.                                                                                                                                     [5] Living  objects  feed  and utilize  food after  procesing .Every living object takes  in food or better say   chemicals. Animals  take food from plants  or other animals  which is feed  on plants .The food  of animals consists of complex organic molecules .In their body ,  the complex molecules are changed  into simpler molecules [digestion] which are absorbed and  again organised   to form complex  molecules  which become part of the protoplasm[assimilation] and also supply  materials for growth ,repair and energy  release .               [6] Living objects grow . Every living objects shows increase in size  and weight . This  phenomenon  is called growth .The growth in organism is caused by a  process  which involves  the intake  of new materials from the outside  and their  subsequent  mixing with the protoplasm  as its part.                                                                                                                                                                                                           

LIVING MATTER

All  matters of the  universe are formed  by the same structural units  hence  they are basically  similar.Inspite  of this  the different objects are categorised   everywhere as living objects  and non-living objects.The matter that forms  every living  object is a greyish , semitransparent and viscous mixture ,named protoplasm by purkinje [1839] and later by hugo von mohl [1846] .This is refered to as a  marvellous super mixture  of mixtures  and a colloidal  system.This  is  compose of a large number of substances or elements ,none of which is unique  to living matter ,that is , these chemicals are also distributed  in all non-living matter of the  world.However , in living matter , these chemical have combined  in a special way  that imparts  quality of life   to this matter .The quality  of life  inherent  in the protoplasm  are the  ability of response  to stimuli  , the ability  of growth  and reproduction  and, the ability  of performing chemical process [chemically called metabolism] .Besides , it can utilize and trnasform energy .The quality of life described  above are not found  in the matter present in non -living objects .                                                                                                                                     BIOLOGY                                                                                                                   Biology    is the study of objects that are alive  due to the presence of steady and dynamic  protoplasm in them .Such objects are named as living objects ,living  beings, or living organisms .In contrast  to the  living objects ,the non-living objects  are not alive .Since  the protoplasm is absent in them  , they donot posess   life.                                                                                                                                                                                 The objects belong to  two basic  types- animals and plants .Athird   category of living objects , include a vast  assemblage of microscopic  living objects which donot fit  nearly into either   animal  assemblage  or plant assemblage .                                                                                                                   MAIN BRANCH OF BIOLOGY                                                                                                                      Biology is divided into animal biology ,also termed Zoology,plant biology, also termed botany and micro biology .                                                                                                                                                              Zoology or  animal biology  deals with animals ,whereas  botany or plant biology deals with  plants .Microbiology is the study of microscopic  biolgy objects  which are distinctly neither animals nor plants .This is further  subdivided  into bacteriology ,dealing with  bacteria and virology , relating to virus .                            Basic Biological Concepts                                                                                                                                [1] Living  objects or living organisms secures  survival ,not merely of the individual  but also of the  species .                                                                                                                                                             [2] To secure  survival , the organisms  are adapted  to the environment , that is their structures and physiology  fits  them to  live sucessfully  in their particular situation .Every organism  is adapted  to its environment  to lesser  or greater  extent; if this were not so , it would  perish.                                                      [3] The greater variety of life forms , thaat is , biological objects   have been arisen  process of slow  gradual change  from simpler forms that existed  in the geological past.In short, we find a progression  from the simple to complex forms.                                                                                                                                  

NATURE;MANIFESTATION OF MATTER AND ENERGY

 It  is usually  thought  that  nature is just our immediate surrounding .However, the  nature is must vast because it includes whole universe  which is composed of  innumerable star sytems  and all inter stellar spaces ,containig countless   things .Every  thing  of the nature , small or large  ,solid,liquid or gas ,living or non- living ,is composed of matter or matters.  The matter undergoes  change in the nature and the process affecting  the  changes  invoves energy and its conversion .                                                Matter ;If  we have to understand the  nature  and functioning  of the living matter , we must know something about its chemical nature  and the process  affecting the  changes involves  energy and its conversion .Anything  that occupies  space and has mass, is called a matter . The matter  may assume solid ,liquid or gas state .For example , water is a liquid  state , ice is  its solid state and steam  is its gas state. State of a matter depends on the prevailing  temperature .Water ,for example,is liquid  or gas state .State of a matter  depends on the prevailing temperature .Water , for example, is liquid  within temperature  range of  above0 degree  to 10 degree c.Below this range it forms  steam [water vapours]  and is a gas.However ,regardless of the state in which  it exists ,it  has the same  chemical composition ,h2o .This is  true with all matters .                                                                                             Type and composition of a matter. A matter may be an element ,compound or mixture .An  element is akind of matter  which cannot be broken down  into two or more different kinds  of atoms .Iron , sulphur, calcium , iodine  oxygen and hydrogen are typical  examples  of  elements . Elements are  commonly  indicated  by their  abbreviation  called  chemical symbols  [eg]  Fe  for the iron   ,S for sulphur ,Ca for calcium ,Ifor iodine  ] .Any  of these  elements  can be broken  down into  smalest   divisible  unit called atom .This unit   holds all  the chemical  characteristics  of its element . Thus , atom  is the  building  block of an element . More than 100 types  of atoms are known .Therefore   there more than 100 elements . An  element  has a sub atomic  structure  which is   which is composed of electrically charged particles of three  kinds,electron ,proton  and neutron .The  electro is negatively charged , proton positively charged  and neutraon uncharged [neutral] .The number of proton is equal to  the  number of electrons  in an  atom of an element .An atom  has  a central  part called nucleus  which is surrounded  by orbit[s] or circle[s] .The  proton and neutron are presented in the nucleus  but the  electrons are  present in orbit[s] ,revolving round the nucleus  The number of proton ,neutron , and electron  is fixed for every element ;some element may lack neutron , for example hydrogen[H] .The hydrogen has one electron  in the orbit  and one protons  in the nucleus  which lacks neutron .The  hydrogen  represent the  simplest atom . There  is another  atom, allied  to hydrogen atom  ,called heavy hydrogen or  deuterium .Like hydrogen ,its  atom has one  proton in nucleus and one electron   in orbit  but its nucleus also contains one neutron  .There fore , it [deuterium] is heavier than hydrogen.                                                                                                                     

SCIENCE

Science  is an orderly and systematized  body of knowledge  based on observations, reasoning and experimental verification  .The term Science   has  been derived from  a Greek verb ,scire , meaning to know and latin noun  scientia, meaning knowledge. The  scientific  knowledge  is gatherd  by observations ,inquiry and investigation .The main thing  that distinguishes  a science from the  ''humanities'' , such as art an literature, is the use of experiments to answer  questions.                                                                                                                                                          There is nothing mysterious about scientific reasoning or experiments. They  are merely logical ways of trying to  solved problems as are used by business people , historians and each of us in everyday life.We do not need  specialized  scientific  training or knowledge  to decide  whether  conclusions are justified  from the data presented .We can  requests further tests of atheory  that  does not appear  to be well  supported by  evidence , and we can agree  or dis agree  with  predictions from a theory .                                                                                                                 Significance of Science                                                                                                                                                  Science has assumed a great importance  in modern society .Discoveries  and inventions  of science  are  inseperable  from human life an welfare . Their application   in day today problems  provides solution for them . Many  decisions  on such subject as population control ,pollution standards , protection of wildlife  and immunization    .The  body of scientific knowledge is already  so vast that  everyone cannot understand  it all .However ,as a  responsible citizen  , we can  follow some studies that bear on public issues .By doing  so, we can apply scientific reasoning  to decide our own positions  on these issues.                                Ramification of Science                                                                                                                                              When  we use the term 'Science' without a descriptive adjective , we usually  refer to a natural science  which deals  with natural phenomena  ,in contrast  to social science , such as  sociology , which  deals with human relations ,or an abstract science, such as mathematics , which deals with abstract  relations or an  abstract science ,such as mathematics ,which  deals with abstract relations.                                                                         The natural sciences are classified as physical  sciences  and biolgical  sciences . The physical sciences primarily  deal with  non-living matterand include subject as physics , chemistry geology and astronomy. The biological sciences  relate to living matters , living subject or living matters , living subjects or living organisms.                                                                                                                                                            Scientific  Method                                                                                                                                     Knowledge , imparted by any science , include facts, laws and principle of nature .The knowledge about thias is acquired  by a typical procedure  which is sometimes called scientific method or  method of science  Sequence of steps  of this procedure are broadly classified as [1] observation [2] hypothesis[3]  experimentation[4]  conclusion and sometimes [5] resting.